Socioeconomic Status and Academic Achievement a Meta-analytic Review of Research
Introduction
Socioeconomic status (SES), an index of one's overall social status or prestige in lodge, is one of the near widely studied constructs in the social sciences. It is usually measured alongside instruction, occupational status, and income (Conger and Donnellan, 2007). Over the past decades, the relationship between SES and child development has been well documented (Bradley and Corwyn, 2002; Hackman et al., 2010; Aizer and Currie, 2014). Compared to children and adolescents growing upwardly in families with high SES, those growing upward in families with low SES demonstrated an increased health run a risk (Chen et al., 2002), higher rates of anxiety, low, and conduct disorders (Wadsworth and Achenbach, 2005). Numerous studies as well associated SES with the IQ level and academic achievement of children and adolescents (National Plant of Child Health and Human Development [Nicdh], 2005; White et al., 1993).
Over contempo decades, the relationship between family SES and academic accomplishment in school-age children has been well documented across different sociocultural contexts. As early as 1966, the well-known Coleman Written report revealed that family SES explained nearly variances in academic accomplishment (Coleman et al., 1966). Sirin (2005) conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis of 58 studies. For a sample from the Us, Sirin confirmed a medium to strong relation betwixt SES and achievement with an average effect size of 0.27 (95% CI: 0.28–0.29). Similarly, Liu et al. (2019) conducted a meta-analysis based on 215,649 students from 78 independent samples. The sample from People's republic of china demonstrated a moderate relation between SES and academic achievement (r = 0.243). However, the mechanism underlying the relationship between SES and kid evolution remains unclear.
Several explanations have been proposed to interpret how family SES impacts child evolution. The about influential are the social causation model, social selection model, and sociocultural self model. The social causation model argues that social and economic weather condition may influence children's functioning and development (Conger et al., 2002). Some empirical studies supported this view, demonstrating that family economic hardship negatively affected parent emotion, relationship, and parenting behavior, which influence child evolution (Conger and Conger, 2002). Likewise, the investment of resource (including fiscal, social, and human being uppercase) past families promotes the development of their children (Bradley et al., 2001). The social selection model takes a different arroyo to the relationship betwixt SES and child development, arguing that individuals' characteristics or attributes may influence their social and economic status (Mayer, 1997; Rowe and Rodgers, 1997). Some empirical research supports the social selection argument, showing that the positive characteristics of parents volition reduce exposure to economic pressure in the family unit; subtract the likelihood of parents' emotional, interparental, and parenting problems; and amend child well-being (Linver et al., 2002).
The sociocultural self model integrated and extended the primal tenets of the social causation and social selection models (Stephens et al., 2012). It proposed that (i) social economical weather condition and individual characteristics or attributes are interdependent forces that influence each other, and (ii) both social economic conditions and private characteristics or attributes indirectly influence individuals' behavior through the self. In this model, self is defined equally "a production of the ongoing mutual constitution of individuals and structures and serve to guide people's beliefs past systematically shaping how people construe situations" (Stephens et al., 2012, p. 733). Compatible with this view, contempo studies indicated that academic self-efficacy mediated the relationship between SES and predictable and actualized school operation (Wiederkehr et al., 2015). Interventions targeting the self and identity have been effective in reducing the racial/ethnic achievement gap for college (Cohen et al., 2006, 2009) and loftier school students in the United States (Sherman et al., 2013; Goyer et al., 2017).
Although there is show that improving family economic weather reduces children'southward risk of psychiatric disorders (Costello et al., 2003), and that interventions targeting individual attributes (e.thou., attention) can significantly facilitate child development in depression SES families (Neville et al., 2013), SES and individual characteristics remain relatively stable over a certain period. The sociocultural self model proposed a new and promising perspective in facilitating kid evolution in families with low SES by changing the selves of students that emerged in a certain situation. Notwithstanding, previous studies on the mechanism of self mediating the relationship between SES and child evolution focused on western samples.
To our knowledge, no study has examined the part of self-concept in the relationship between SES and child development using a Chinese sample. It is well known that cultural experiences influence and determine i's self. In China, nether the influence of the Confucian culture, parents tend to pay much attending to their children's learning activities and academic accomplishment. In most families, parents practise their best to provide good learning conditions regardless of SES (Wong et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2014). Relevant inquiry has shown that this type of parent support may influence the self-concept of children, which influences their schoolhouse accomplishment (Xiao and Liu, 2017). Accordingly, some studies indicated the relation betwixt good academic achievement and the praise and respect children received (Zhou et al., 2010). Whether this departure in cultural value influences the relationships between SES, self-concept, and school achievement remains unclear.
Therefore, in this written report, we investigate the relationships between family SES, self-concept, and schoolhouse bookish achievement of Chinese inferior school students in Mainland China. Nosotros hypothesized that family SES measured through parents' education, occupation, and income would be significantly associated with children'due south self-concept, which will influence their school achievement.
Materials and Methods
Participants
In total, 345 first-yr students (age range = 9–17 years, M age = xiii.40 years, SD = 0.73; 52.4% female person) at a junior centre school in Lanzhou, China were recruited as participants in this report. This school is a medium to large-sized community-based public elementary school with approximately 40–50 students in each class and approximately three,000 students in total in grades 1–iii. All students are native Standard mandarin speakers and native to Communist china. We also followed ethics guidelines and obtained permission from the school principals, teachers, parents, and children. Consent was first obtained from the school principals and teachers. Then, parents indicated their consent by signing a grade distributed at a parent meeting or brought habitation by their children.
Measures and Procedure
All children completed a demographic question (age, gender, parents' level of education, parents' occupational status or what jobs the parents held, and annual household income) and a cocky-concept scale in the heart of the second semester. Children completed the demographic questions past taking the questionnaire home and consulting with their parents. The children were asked to consummate the self-concept scale by themselves. At the end of the semester, we obtained their concluding examination scores for 2 subjects (Chinese and mathematics) as indicators of their schoolhouse academic achievement.
SES
Although there is no consensus on how to measure SES, it is agreed that a stable measure thereof should incorporate education, occupation, and income (Bradley and Corwyn, 2002). Therefore, in this study, we used parents' level of teaching, occupation, and annual household income to guess the children's family SES. Parents' level of educational activity was measured on a 7-bespeak Likert scale: ane = chief grade 3 or below, 2 = master grade four to six, 3 = middle schoolhouse, 4 = high schoolhouse, 5 = iii year higher, 6 = iv-twelvemonth academy, vii = postgraduate. Parents' occupation was measured using the Occupational Prestige Scale (Li, 2005), in which 81 occupations are rated and their scores standardized as 0–100. A college score represents the higher prestige of that occupation. Annual household income was measured on a ten-point Likert scale: ane = less than ten,000; 2 = between x,000 and xxx,000; 3 = betwixt thirty,000 and l,000; 4 = between 50,000 and 100,000; 5 = between 100,000 and 150,000; 6 = between 150,000 and 200,000; 7 = between 200,000 and 300,000; 8 = between 300,000 and 500,000; nine = between 500,000 and 1,000,000; 10 = more than than 1,000,000 Chinese Yuan per year.
Self-Concept
Children'south self-concept was assessed using the Children and Adolescents Self-Recognition Scale (CASRS) adult by Dong and Lin (2011). This scale includes xviii items, which assess the children's perceived self through their by experience and agreement of this by feel (Shavelson et al., 1976). Sample items are: "About of my courses are very good," "I did well in about of my courses." Children were asked to rate all items on a iv-point Likert calibration (1 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly concur). The sum of the scores of each detail was the final score of this scale, with higher scores indicating a more positive perceived self-concept. Previous studies confirmed the high validity and reliability of the CASRS (Dong and Lin, 2011). In this written report, the internal consistency reliability coefficient (Cronbach'southward α) of the scale was 0.82.
School Academic Achievement
School bookish achievement in this written report was defined as the children'south operation in school subject field areas such every bit language literacy and mathematics. Because at that place are no standardized language and mathematics tests in China, following previous studies (Donnelly et al., 2016; Xiang et al., 2017), we collected the children's final exam scores for two subjects (Chinese and mathematics) as indicators of their schoolhouse academic achievement. In Red china, schoolhouse accomplishment is usually assessed through a Teacher-Edited Test, which examines students' learning and understanding in school subject area areas such as mathematics and language literacy in the middle and at the end of each semester. In this study, the test raw score for each bailiwick ranged from 0–150, with higher scores indicating higher operation in that discipline expanse.
Data Assay
First, descriptive statistics (mean scores, standard deviations, and range) and Pearson's correlations were calculated using SPSS 22.0 for each variable. Then, the mediation model was tested in Mplus 7.0 (Muthen and Muthen, 1998/2012). In arbitration model, nosotros use latent construct to estimate the SES with v observed variables (father' level of education, mother' level of educational activity, father'south occupational prestige, mother's occupational prestige, and annual household income).
Results
Descriptive Statistics, Internal Reliability, and Inter-Correlations
Table ane shows the ways, standard deviations, and ranges of all measures in this report. Tabular array 2 shows the inter-correlations for all measures controlling for sex and historic period. As Tabular array 2 shows, most SES measures (parents' level of pedagogy, occupation, and almanac household income) were significantly correlated with the self-concept also as functioning in Chinese and mathematics, respectively. In addition, self-concept was also significantly correlated with operation in Chinese and mathematics.
Table i. Means, standard deviations, range, and reliability for all measures (n = 345).
Table 2. Correlations among SES measures, self-concept, Chinese, and mathematics performance controlling for sex and age.
Mediation Model
To examine the possibility that the human relationship between SES and school academic achievement was mediated by self-concept, we conducted 2 mediation analyses. The first analysis tested the hypothesis that self-concept mediated the relationship between SES and performance in Chinese. The second tested the hypothesis that self-concept mediated the relationship between SES and operation in mathematics.
Functioning in Chinese
Effigy one shows the results for performance in Chinese. As shown in Figure 1A, first, a direct model was used to test the relationship between SES and school Chinese accomplishment. As expected, the direct issue (β = 0.23, p < 0.01) from SES to schoolhouse Chinese achievement was significant. And then, the mediation model was used to examine the potential mediating effects of self-concept on the relationship betwixt SES and schoolhouse Chinese achievement. As shown in Figure 1B, when self-concept entered as a mediator, the direct issue (β = 0.xx, p = 0.01) from SES to school Chinese achievement was still statistically significant, and the indirect effect of cocky-concept was also pregnant (β = 0.027, p < 0.05). These results confirmed that self-concept partially mediated the relationship between SES and Chinese achievement.
Figure i. (A) The relationship between SES and Chinese functioning. (B) Self-concept mediate the relationship betwixt SES and Chinese performance. SES = socioeconomic condition. ∗p < 0.01; ∗∗∗ p < 0.001; n = 345.
Performance in Mathematics
The same analyses were repeated for performance in mathematics. As shown in Figure 2A, the direct model showed that the directly effect (β = 0.20, p < 0.01) from SES to schoolhouse mathematics achievement was significant. The arbitration model showed that when self-concept entered as a mediator (Effigy 2B), the direct outcome (β = 0.17, p < 0.01) from SES to school mathematics achievement was notwithstanding statistically meaning, and also, the indirect outcome of self-concept was likewise pregnant (β = 0.042, p < 0.05).
Figure 2. (A) The relationship between SES and mathematics performance. (B) Self-concept mediate the human relationship betwixt SES and mathematics performance. SES = socioeconomic status. ∗∗p < 0.01; ∗∗∗ p < 0.001; due north = 345.
Moderation Model
The possible moderating furnishings of cocky-concept in the relationship between SES and bookish achievement (in both Chinese and mathematics) were examined using hierarchical regression analyses. The interactions of SES with cocky-concept were represented by multiplying the standard SES score with the standard score of the self-concept measures. Nonetheless, these interactions demonstrated no significant effects after sex, age, SES, and self-concept were put into previous blocks in the corresponding models (all p > 0.05).
Discussion
Social inequalities take profound effects on the development of children and adolescents. Reducing social grade disparities in their evolution is on the global enquiry agenda (Adler et al., 1993; Cohen et al., 2006; Stephens et al., 2012). However, the mechanism underlying the human relationship betwixt SES and child development remains unclear. This report was designed to explore the possible mediating part of cocky-concept in the relationship between SES and academic achievement among inferior high school students in China. Nosotros found a moderate relation between SES and academic achievement (Chinese: r = 0.18; mathematics: r = 0.23). This finding is aligned with that of Liu et al. (2019), which reported that the overall relationship between Chinese students' SES and bookish achievement was moderate (r = 0.24). Nonetheless, our finding differs from that of the PISA written report (r 2 = 0.18 is about r = 0.42) in the B-S-J-G area (Beijing-Shanghai-Jiangsu-Guangdong) of Mainland china (OECD, 2016). One reason for the differences in the results of studies may exist related to the level of socio-economic and cultural evolution of the selected sample. B-S-J-G are among the meridian four provinces in Communist china in terms of economics, residents' incomes, and schoolhouse education, whereas Gansu (in the current report) is amid the bottom provinces in terms of these aspects (NBSC, 2016). Uniform with this caption, relevant studies showed that the relationship between SES and academic achievement in developing countries, especially in low-income countries, was weaker than that in adult countries (Heyneman and Loxley, 1983; OECD, 2016). Further studies are needed to examine how the levels of socio-economic and cultural evolution attune the relationship betwixt SES and academic achievement in unlike provinces or regions of Communist china.
One of import implication of this report is that SES predicted bookish achievement partially through the mediating upshot of self-concept. This is by and large consistent with previous studies using a western sample, which revealed that cocky-efficacy mediated the relationship between SES and anticipated and actualized school performance (Wiederkehr et al., 2015). The overall findings support the theoretical framework that children'due south academic accomplishment is indirectly associated with SES through the mediating consequence of self-concept beyond cultures. These results advise that families with a high SES should aid children form and sustain a positive cocky-concept, which is associated with better academic school performance. Indeed, enquiry has documented that children from families with low SES usually experience more than economic hardship, a lack of diverse resources, and higher threats to social identity such every bit negative stereotypes regarding their intellectual ability (Croizet and Claire, 1998) and social belonging (Veland et al., 2009). These disadvantaged economic and psychological weather may pose a chronic threat to children'southward self-integrity, undermining their academic functioning (Cohen et al., 2006; Walton and Cohen, 2011). These results were too consistent with the view of the sociocultural self model, namely that socioeconomic conditions influence individuals' behavior through how they ascertain themselves in a certain situation (Stephens et al., 2012).
In addition to the significant indirect upshot of family SES on school achievement through self-concept, we as well institute that family SES directly affects school achievement. This implies that self-concept may non completely explain the relationship between family SES and school achievement. This finding differed somewhat from that of a written report by Wiederkehr et al. (2015) on French children that identified the fully mediating role of self-concept in the relationship between family SES and schoolhouse operation. Differences in other important factors closely related to family SES such every bit learning materials available in the dwelling house and parents' stimulation of their children to learn may too play important roles in the link betwixt family SES and the school achievement of Chinese children. According to the family unit investment model, parents' material and interpersonal investment in their children may at least partially explain the association betwixt family SES and children's development (Kalil and Deleire, 2004; Conger and Donnellan, 2007). Withal, the results of this study demonstrated the important role of self-concept in the relationship between family SES and the academic achievement of Chinese children.
The findings of this report accept important implications for possible interventions to better academic school accomplishment. Although SES is a relatively stable status and difficult to change, our results advise that helping children grade and sustain a positive cocky-concept may improve their bookish school achievement and reduce social inequalities in kid development. Appropriately, contempo studies based on the sociocultural self model showed that interventions targeting the self and identity were constructive in reducing the racial/ethnic achievement gap for higher and high schoolhouse students in the United states (Cohen et al., 2006, 2009; Sherman et al., 2013; Goyer et al., 2017). Further studies are needed to examine whether these interventions are also an effective manner to reduce the social class (SES) disparities in academic achievement in Prc.
Finally, some limitations of this study should exist acknowledged. First, convenience sampling may hinder the generalizability of the results. 2nd, the cross-exclusive pattern of the study may accept caused difficulties in establishing the causal relationships between variables. Previous studies showed a reciprocal human relationship between self-concept and academic achievement (Marsh et al., 1999; Marsh and O'Mara, 2008). Longitudinal studies are needed to examine the dynamic relationship between SES, self-concept, and school academic achievement.
In summary, the findings of this study confirmed the role of family SES in bookish achievement amongst junior high school students in northwest Cathay. Furthermore, the electric current study also extended the extant literature by demonstrating that family unit SES influences children'southward academic school achievement partly through their self-concept in China. These findings suggested that disadvantageous family unit backgrounds may have a negative affect on how children defined themselves in school situation, and ultimately influence on their academic schoolhouse achievement. Intervention target on help low SES students to maintain self-integrity may an effective fashion in reducing the social stand accomplishment gap for middle school students in China.
Data Availability Statement
The datasets generated and analyzed during this report are available from the corresponding writer on reasonable request.
Ethics Statement
The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Psychology, NWNU. Written informed consent to participate in this written report was provided by the participants' legal guardian/adjacent of kin.
Author Contributions
SL and RX conceived the research. QX participated in performing the inquiry. All authors participated in writing the manuscript.
Funding
This research was supported by the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2017M613298XB) and the Science and Applied science Projection of Gansu Province (18JR3RA082).
Conflict of Involvement
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could exist construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02513/full
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